How Fast Does an Email Tracking Pixel Report an Open?

An email can appear in your inbox at 9:00, be marked “opened” at 9:01, and remain unread by any human. It can also be carefully read without ever producing an open record. That apparent contradiction is the key to understanding email tracking pixels.

A tracking pixel does not watch your eyes, measure reading time, or confirm that you understood a message. It is usually a tiny remote image with a unique web address. When an email app, privacy service, or automated system requests that image, the tracking server records the request. The request itself can reach the server in less than a second on a working connection. A sender’s dashboard may display the event immediately or after additional processing.

The difficult part is determining what caused the request. It might be the recipient displaying the email, but it could also be Apple Mail downloading remote content privately in the background, a provider proxy fetching an image, a security scanner examining the message, or another person opening a forwarded copy. If images are blocked, the event may never appear at all.

This guide explains both timelines: how quickly the technology can report an image request and how long a sender should wait before treating email engagement data as meaningful.

Quick Answer

When an email app directly loads a tracking pixel as a person displays the message, the tracking server can receive the request within a fraction of a second to a few seconds. The reporting service may then show the open almost immediately or after a short processing delay. There is no universal dashboard-update guarantee because every tracking platform has its own event pipeline.

However, the timestamp may not represent a human opening the email:

Situation	When an “open” may be reported	What the event actually proves
Recipient opens an HTML email and external images load directly	Usually within seconds	The tracking image was requested around that time
Apple Mail Privacy Protection is active	In the background after receipt, not necessarily when the person reads	Apple privately downloaded remote content; actual reading time is obscured
A privacy-focused service preloads or proxies images	On receipt or during automated processing	The service handled the remote content, not that the recipient read it
External images are blocked	Never, unless the recipient later allows images	No image request occurred
Message is read offline	After reconnection if the app later retrieves the image, or never	The load time may be later than the reading time
Spam filter or security system inspects content	Before delivery, at delivery, or shortly afterward	An automated system examined something associated with the message
Image is served from a cache	The first fetch may be recorded; later views may be hidden or combined	The visible email may have reopened without another origin-server request
Recipient forwards the message normally	When the forwarded copy loads the original pixel	The event may be attributed to the original recipient or campaign record
Plain-text message	No pixel-based open	Plain text cannot contain the hidden HTML image used for open tracking
Sender checks the campaign report	Seconds to much later, depending on the platform	The dashboard has processed the event; it still does not prove reading

For one individual email, an open notification should be treated as a signal, not a receipt. For a large campaign, open data can still reveal broad trends, but privacy protections, automated activity, image blocking, caching, and forwarding can distort the numbers.

What Is an Email Tracking Pixel?

An email tracking pixel—also called an open tracker, web beacon, spy pixel, or tracking image—is normally a small image referenced in the HTML version of an email. It is often transparent and only one pixel wide and one pixel high, although the same method can use an ordinary logo, banner, or other remote image.

The image is not necessarily attached to the message. Instead, the HTML contains an address similar to this simplified example:

https://tracking.example/open/unique-message-code.gif

The unique code can associate the request with a campaign, message, or recipient. When software retrieves that address, the tracking server can log information available in the web request and its own records, such as:

the unique tracking identifier;
the server’s receipt time;
the source IP address visible to that server, which may belong to a proxy rather than the recipient;
basic request headers, depending on the email client and intermediary;
the campaign or message associated with the image; and
whether the platform has already counted a unique open for that recipient.

The sender normally views a processed version of this data in an email-marketing report, sales tool, notification, or event webhook. The platform may label the event opened, but the underlying observation is more limited: a particular image URL was requested.

That distinction matters because software can request an image without a person reading the words around it. Conversely, a person can read an email while the image remains blocked.

The Five Clocks Behind One “Opened” Timestamp

People often ask for one number, but an email open involves several separate clocks. Confusing them creates false certainty.

1. Delivery time

This is when the recipient’s mail system accepts or places the message in the mailbox. Delivery can occur seconds after sending, or it can be delayed by queues, temporary server problems, filtering, or other email-delivery conditions.

No tracking pixel can report a recipient’s interaction before some system has access to the message. Automated security processing may begin before the message becomes visible in the inbox, however.

2. Remote-content fetch time

This is when an email app, image proxy, privacy service, or automated scanner requests the pixel. With direct loading and a healthy internet connection, the request is a normal web transaction and can reach the tracking server very quickly.

This is the clock that the tracking pixel measures most directly.

3. Event-processing time

The tracking provider may validate, store, classify, deduplicate, or filter the request. Some systems distinguish the first or unique open from all recorded opens. Others attempt to identify privacy-protection or bot activity. Processing can add delay and can change what eventually appears in reports.

4. Dashboard or notification time

The sender’s app must retrieve or display the stored event. A live notification, campaign report, downloadable file, webhook, and summary chart may update on different schedules. A platform can log an event before the sender sees it.

5. Human reading time

This is the time the sender usually wants—but the tracking pixel does not directly observe it. The reader may glance at the preview pane, leave the message open without reading, read it offline, or never see it while a privacy service downloads its images.

A responsible interpretation keeps these clocks separate. A timestamp in a tracking report is best described as the recorded remote-content request time, unless the provider clearly defines it differently.

Why an Open Does Not Prove the Message Was Read

The word open sounds more human than the measurement deserves. Several ordinary behaviors can trigger a request without meaningful reading:

A preview pane displays the message automatically as the user moves through the inbox.
The user taps the email and immediately closes it.
An app loads images while the message is on screen but behind another window.
A privacy system downloads remote content in the background.
A security product investigates content before a person sees it.
A forwarded recipient loads a URL that was created for the original recipient.
A shared mailbox is viewed by an assistant, coworker, or automated workflow.

The reverse also happens. A recipient can read the subject, sender, and preview text without displaying the body. They can open a plain-text version, block remote images, read while offline, or use a client that removes known trackers. Each can produce genuine reading with no pixel event.

An open report therefore cannot prove:

who physically looked at the screen;
whether the full message was visible;
how long anyone paid attention;
whether the reader understood or agreed with the content;
whether the apparent location belongs to the reader; or
whether the recipient intentionally opened the message.

For an important business, legal, safety, or personal communication, use an explicit response, signed workflow, authenticated portal action, confirmed appointment, or other appropriate acknowledgment. A tracking-pixel event is not a substitute for proof of notice or consent.

How Apple Mail Privacy Protection Changes the Timeline

Apple’s Mail Privacy Protection is one of the clearest examples of why open time and reading time are no longer equivalent. When Protect Mail Activity is enabled, Apple says Mail hides the user’s IP address and privately downloads remote content in the background when the message is received rather than when it is viewed.

For a sender, that can create an apparent open that is:

earlier than the recipient’s actual reading;
unrelated to whether the recipient ever reads the message;
associated with an intermediary address instead of the reader’s direct IP address; and
unsuitable for measuring the exact number or time of human views.

The important point is not that every Apple-related event follows one fixed minute-by-minute schedule. Apple controls the private retrieval process, and network and device conditions can vary. The defensible conclusion is that the resulting timestamp does not reliably disclose when a person opened the message.

If Apple Mail cannot load remote content privately, it may show a notice and wait for the user to choose Load Content. In that situation, a later request can occur after the user acts, but it still should not be treated as a precision reading-time measurement.

For campaign analysis, Apple Mail Privacy Protection can inflate the number of reported opens and weaken time-of-open, repeat-open, IP-location, and device conclusions. Email platforms may offer bot or privacy filtering, but no filter should be assumed perfect.

What Gmail’s Image Handling Means

Gmail displays external images automatically by default, unless it considers the sender or message suspicious. Google says it scans images for suspicious content, prevents senders from using image loading to obtain information about the recipient’s computer or location, and prevents images from setting or reading browser cookies. Google also acknowledges that senders may sometimes know whether an email containing an image was opened.

Practically, this means a Gmail pixel can still produce an open signal while some traditional details are concealed or replaced by Google’s image-handling infrastructure. The sender should not assume the visible source address or device information is a direct description of the recipient.

Gmail users can choose Ask before displaying external images. When that setting or a safety decision blocks an image, merely reading the text does not necessarily request the pixel. The event may appear only if the person chooses to display images—or it may never appear.

Caching introduces another complication. When an intermediary reuses a stored image response, the sender’s origin may not receive a fresh request for every later display. The first visible “open” can be easier to detect than the fifth, and a repeat-open count may not equal the number of times a person revisited the message.

Outlook, Thunderbird, and Other Clients That Can Block Remote Content

Microsoft describes external email images as web beacons that can be used to track whether someone has read an email. Outlook provides settings that block external images as a privacy protection, and classic Outlook documentation distinguishes tracking pixels from read receipts.

Mozilla Thunderbird blocks remote content by default. Mozilla explains that remote content can reveal each view, rough application and platform details, an approximate location derived from the visible IP address, and whether an email address is active. A Thunderbird user can allow remote content for one message, a sender, or a website.

These controls create several possible outcomes:

Images remain blocked: the recipient can read the email indefinitely without an open event.
Images are allowed immediately: the pixel request can occur within seconds of that action.
A sender is added to an allowlist: future messages may load remote content automatically while older behavior differs.
Only embedded images appear: graphics included as attachments can display while the remote pixel remains unfetched.
The message is viewed as plain text or simplified HTML: the tracking image may not be rendered.

Other privacy-focused email services may remove known trackers or preload ordinary remote images through a proxy. Proton Mail, for example, says it removes known email trackers and loads other remote images through its servers using a generic address and location. It also says this remote-image handling can occur when mail is received rather than when it is opened.

The correct timeline therefore depends not just on the email address’s domain, but on the app, account settings, device, operating system, privacy features, and route through which the message is read.

Can a Security Scanner Report an Open Before Delivery?

Automated mail-security systems inspect messages for spam, phishing, malware, and suspicious destinations. Their behavior varies. Some examine HTML and links without retrieving every remote image; others may visit resources or interact with tracked links in ways that create activity before a person opens the message.

Mailchimp warns that aggressive spam filters and bot activity can inflate engagement metrics. In its system, a tracked click can also be counted as an open, so an automated link inspection can create what looks like an open even if the specific pixel was not the trigger.

This distinction is important when investigating an extremely fast notification. If a sales tool says a message was opened seconds after sending—perhaps even before it appeared to be delivered—the event may come from automated processing, an image proxy, or the tracking platform’s own event rules.

Clues that an event may be automated include:

activity occurs at nearly the same delay for many recipients;
multiple links appear clicked almost simultaneously;
opens occur before ordinary users would plausibly see the message;
one recipient appears to open every campaign immediately;
the reported environment resembles a data center or provider proxy; or
engagement occurs at delivery but is never followed by a reply, later click, purchase, or other human action.

None of these clues proves bot activity alone. They are reasons to avoid interpreting the event literally and to compare it with other evidence.

Why Image Caching Can Hide Repeat Opens

Web caching saves a previously retrieved file so it can be shown again without repeatedly contacting the original server. Email providers, image proxies, content-delivery networks, corporate gateways, and the local app may all participate in caching.

Suppose a provider requests a pixel once and stores the response. The recipient then opens the message three more times. If those later views use the cached copy, the tracking origin may see only the first request. A campaign report could show one open where the message was displayed four times.

The reverse distortion can occur when several automated or direct requests reach the tracking system. A report may show repeated opens even though only one brief human view occurred.

Tracking vendors use unique URLs, response headers, event rules, and other techniques to improve measurement, but they cannot force every email client and intermediary to behave identically. This is why repeat-open counts are particularly fragile.

Caching also affects location and device claims. If Google’s, Apple’s, Proton’s, or a corporate proxy’s server retrieves the file, the origin may observe the intermediary rather than the endpoint device. A geographic label based on that request can describe a server location or broad network region, not the person’s precise physical location.

What Happens When an Email Is Forwarded?

A normal forward can preserve the original HTML, including its unique tracking address. When the second person loads that image, the request may still be associated with the original campaign recipient.

The sender may then conclude that the first person reopened the email, even though someone else viewed the forwarded copy. Mailchimp specifically notes that opens of messages forwarded through an ordinary email-provider forward button may be recorded as additional opens for the original contact. A platform’s special Forward to a Friend feature may handle attribution differently.

Forwarding can also alter or remove parts of the HTML. Some clients quote the original content, replace remote images, attach the message, or send only plain text. Consequently, a forward might produce a new request, use a cached copy, or produce no open at all.

Shared mailboxes and delegated accounts create a similar identity problem. The tracking platform knows which unique URL was requested; it does not necessarily know which authorized person was at the keyboard.

What If the Recipient Reads the Email Offline?

Offline behavior can reverse the expected order. An app might have already downloaded the message text but not the remote image. The recipient reads the email on an airplane or without service, and no request reaches the tracking server.

Several outcomes are possible after reconnection:

the app requests the pixel and produces an apparently late open;
the message remains closed, so the image is never fetched;
the app uses a previously cached or proxied image, creating no new origin request; or
privacy protection removes or substitutes the tracker.

An open timestamp after the person finished reading is therefore possible. It records network retrieval, not the earlier offline experience.

Mobile background behavior adds more uncertainty. An app can synchronize, prefetch, defer work to conserve battery or data, or wait for Wi-Fi. Low-data mode, weak coverage, battery restrictions, roaming settings, and app suspension can all separate message viewing from remote-image retrieval.

Tracking Pixels, Link Tracking, and Read Receipts Are Different

These mechanisms are often grouped together, but they answer different questions.

Mechanism	What triggers it	What it can reasonably indicate	Main limitation
Open-tracking pixel	Remote image request	The tracking image was fetched	Fetch may be automated, proxied, cached, blocked, or unrelated to reading
Tracked link	Request through a redirected or tagged URL	Something followed a particular link	Security bots may inspect links; shared or forwarded links confuse identity
Read receipt	Mail-client protocol or recipient response	The recipient’s system returned a receipt	The recipient or organization may decline, suppress, or automate it
Delivery status	Receiving server accepts or rejects mail	The message reached a receiving system	Acceptance does not prove inbox placement or reading
Explicit reply or authenticated action	Person responds or completes a defined step	Stronger evidence of engagement	Still requires context and appropriate identity controls

A link click can be more informative than a pixel load because it usually requires interaction, but automated security tools also inspect links. Some marketing platforms infer or count an open when a tracked link is clicked. Before comparing reports, read the vendor’s definitions.

A read receipt is not a tracking pixel. It may ask the receiving client to send a confirmation, and recipients or administrators can often refuse. Neither mechanism should be presented as infallible proof.

How Long Should a Sender Wait Before Checking Results?

There are two different answers.

For a technical event, a direct pixel request may appear within seconds. If you are testing whether a newly configured tracker functions, that is a reasonable first window—provided the test client loads remote images and no proxy obscures the request.

For campaign judgment, wait much longer. People do not all check email immediately, and early results can be dominated by automated fetches and the most active recipients. Mailchimp advises giving contacts at least a few hours before judging low initial open rates. Depending on the audience and purpose, a day or several days may provide a more representative engagement picture.

Avoid these common mistakes:

calling a recipient because an alert appeared and claiming to know they just read the message;
resending within minutes because no open appeared;
comparing campaigns sent at different times before both have had a similar observation period;
treating Apple-protected or bot-affected opens as precise human events;
measuring one employee’s responsiveness from pixel data alone; or
assuming a low open rate means the message was not read.

For meaningful analysis, compare consistent groups and time windows, label privacy-affected data, and emphasize replies, confirmed actions, purchases, registrations, or other outcomes appropriate to the message.

How to Test an Email Tracking Pixel Properly

If you operate a legitimate mailing system and have an appropriate privacy basis for tracking, use controlled tests before trusting its reports.

Send unique test messages to accounts you control and compare several environments:

Gmail with images displayed;
Gmail set to ask before displaying external images;
Apple Mail with Protect Mail Activity enabled;
Apple Mail with remote content blocked, where available;
Outlook with external images blocked and then allowed;
Thunderbird with its default remote-content protection;
a privacy-focused mailbox that removes or proxies trackers;
a mobile device in airplane mode followed by reconnection; and
a normally forwarded copy.

Record the send time, delivery time, actual viewing time, moment images were allowed, pixel-server event time, webhook time, and dashboard time. Use test accounts and content only; do not experiment on unsuspecting recipients.

If you control the tracking endpoint, its server log or event webhook is closer to the actual request than a periodically refreshed summary chart. A delay in the dashboard does not necessarily mean the image request was delayed.

Check that the unique image URL is present in the delivered HTML, the server returns a successful image response, HTTPS works, and the tracking domain is correctly configured. Do not assume a browser test reproduces an email client’s proxy and caching behavior.

One successful Gmail test does not predict Apple Mail, Outlook, corporate gateways, or future app versions. Document the tested app, version, settings, date, and network conditions. Recheck after material platform or privacy changes.

Email tracking can be regulated as behavioral tracking or personal-data processing. Twilio SendGrid advises customers to obtain unambiguous consent where applicable privacy law requires it. Laws, contracts, workplace rules, and provider terms vary. Obtain qualified legal advice for the jurisdictions and audience involved rather than treating a technical guide as legal clearance.

Why Your Test Pixel Did Not Report an Open

If a controlled test produces no event, work from the simplest explanations outward.

Confirm tracking was enabled before sending. Adding it later cannot change the delivered HTML.
Check the delivered format and source. Plain text cannot contain the standard hidden image; the final HTML should contain the expected unique remote URL.
Allow external images in the test client. Reading the text is insufficient when remote content is blocked.
Test the endpoint. Its domain, HTTPS certificate, path, and image response must work.
Separate endpoint and dashboard timing. Look for a raw event or webhook before concluding that no request occurred.
Consider filtering, proxies, and caches. A service may remove the tracker, fetch it through an intermediary, or reuse a stored response.
Try a new unique URL in a second controlled client. This helps separate a server problem from client policy.

Never weaken account security, disable organization-wide protections, or allow suspicious content merely to make an open counter increase.

Why the Report Shows Too Many or Impossible Opens

An unexpectedly high count can result from:

Apple Mail background downloads;
security or anti-spam automation;
a platform counting bot-inspected clicks as opens;
forwarded messages retaining the original tracking identifier;
multiple devices or apps requesting the same image;
retries after incomplete or failed responses;
internal testing; or
differences between total opens and unique opens.

First read the platform’s metric definitions. A unique open usually counts a recipient once, while total opens may include repeated requests. Even a unique count can be inflated by automated fetching because the system may see one valid-looking request for a recipient who never read the message.

Do not manually subtract all Apple users or all rapid events without understanding the provider’s existing filters. That can remove genuine engagement and still leave other automation. Use the vendor’s bot/privacy reporting where available, preserve the raw and filtered views, and explain the limitation when presenting results.

How Recipients Can Reduce Email Open Tracking

If you do not want senders to receive direct pixel requests from your device, the most effective options are provided by the email app or service:

block or ask before displaying external images;
use a mail privacy feature that removes known trackers or privately proxies remote content;
read suspicious messages as plain text when appropriate;
do not select Display Images for an untrusted message;
keep the email app and operating system updated;
avoid clicking links merely to test whether a message is genuine; and
report phishing or spam through the provider’s normal controls.

Blocking all remote images has tradeoffs. Newsletters, receipts, travel confirmations, and account notices may look incomplete. A trusted-sender or per-message control can offer a middle ground, although sender addresses can be spoofed and trust decisions should not rely on appearance alone.

Privacy proxying also has a tradeoff: it can prevent the sender from learning your direct address and actual reading time, yet the proxy’s automated retrieval may still look like an open in aggregate statistics. That is privacy protection, not necessarily invisibility in every report.

Deleting an email after opening it cannot take back a request that already reached the tracking server. Blocking images before they load is different from deleting local message history afterward.

Can a Pixel Reveal Your Exact Location or Identity?

A direct web request commonly exposes an IP address to the server that receives it. That address can sometimes support a rough location or network inference, but it is not a reliable GPS coordinate. Mobile carriers, corporate networks, VPNs, internet providers, and proxies can make the apparent location distant or broad.

Apple says Mail Privacy Protection hides the user’s IP address from senders. Google says Gmail image handling prevents senders from using image loading to obtain information about the recipient’s computer or location. Proton says its protection hides the user’s personal IP address, device information, and exact open time while proxying other remote images.

The unique image address can still identify the campaign record or intended recipient inside the sender’s database. That does not prove who operated the device, especially after forwarding, delegation, or shared-mailbox access.

Treat any location or device label in a tracking dashboard as an inference whose quality depends on the client and network path. It should not be used as precise surveillance evidence.

If you are exploring privacy, identity, and the traces devices leave online, these related guides may also help:

Frequently Asked Questions

Can an email tracking pixel report an open instantly?

It can report the underlying image request within a fraction of a second to a few seconds when the client loads images directly and the network is working. The sender’s dashboard or notification may update later because the platform still has to process and display the event.

Does an open notification mean the recipient read the email?

No. It means the tracking system recorded activity associated with the message, commonly a remote-image request. Preview panes, privacy services, security automation, forwarding, and brief accidental views can generate activity without meaningful reading.

Can a pixel report an open before the recipient sees the message?

Yes. Apple Mail Privacy Protection privately downloads remote content in the background, and other proxies or security systems may process message resources automatically. The resulting timestamp may precede—or be unrelated to—the recipient’s actual viewing time.

Why did I read an email without triggering its tracking pixel?

External images may have been blocked, the message may have displayed as plain text, the app may have removed known trackers, or you may have read while offline. The visible words and the remote image are separate resources.

Does Gmail block tracking pixels?

Gmail displays external images automatically by default but scans and handles them in ways that conceal computer and location information. Google says senders may sometimes know whether an image-containing email was opened. Users can choose to be asked before external images display.

Does Apple Mail Privacy Protection stop all open reports?

It prevents senders from reliably learning whether and when the user opened the message by privately downloading remote content in the background and hiding the user’s IP address. A tracking platform may still record that automated fetch as an apparent open.

Can Outlook or Thunderbird prevent a pixel from loading?

Yes. Outlook offers external-image blocking controls, and Thunderbird blocks remote content by default. If the recipient later permits images for the message or sender, the pixel request may occur at that later time.

Can opening an email in the preview pane trigger the pixel?

Yes, if the preview pane renders the HTML and loads external images. The person does not have to open a separate full-message window, and the message may be visible only briefly.

Will reopening an email create another open event?

It might. The client may request the image again, but caching or proxying can reuse an earlier copy without contacting the tracking origin. Platforms also distinguish total opens from unique opens, so reports may count the same activity differently.

Can forwarding an email make it look as if the original recipient reopened it?

Yes. A normal forward can preserve the original recipient’s unique pixel URL. When the next person loads it, the event may be attributed to the original campaign record unless the platform uses a special forwarding feature.

Does deleting the email erase the open record?

No. Once the request reached the tracking service, deleting the message from your mailbox does not withdraw the server event. Blocking remote content before it loads is what prevents that particular direct request.

Is a tracking pixel the same as a read receipt?

No. A pixel relies on a remote image request. A read receipt uses mail-client functionality and can often be declined or suppressed. Neither automatically proves that a particular person understood the message.

Can a tracking pixel show the recipient’s exact location?

Not reliably. A direct request may reveal an IP address that supports a rough estimate, but VPNs, carriers, corporate networks, and privacy proxies can obscure or replace it. It is not equivalent to GPS location.

How long should marketers wait before judging open-rate results?

Wait at least several hours rather than judging the first few moments, and use a consistent observation period for comparisons. For many audiences, a day or longer produces a more representative picture. Interpret opens alongside clicks, replies, conversions, and bot/privacy filtering.

Quick Summary

An email tracking pixel can send its underlying signal very quickly. When an HTML message directly loads a unique remote image, the request can reach the tracking server in a fraction of a second to a few seconds. The platform’s dashboard or notification can add its own processing delay, so no universal “instant” guarantee applies.

The reported time is not necessarily the time a person read the email. Apple Mail Privacy Protection can download remote content privately in the background. Gmail handles external images in ways that conceal computer and location information. Proton Mail removes known trackers and proxies other remote images. Outlook and Thunderbird can block external content. Security automation, forwarding, preview panes, offline reading, and caching create additional false, early, late, missing, or misattributed opens.

Treat a single open alert as a signal that a system recorded activity associated with the message—not proof that the intended recipient read or understood it. For campaign analysis, allow recipients enough time, separate unique and total opens, use privacy and bot filters, and compare open data with clicks, replies, conversions, and confirmed actions.

Recipients who want less direct tracking can block or approve external images individually, use a privacy-protecting mail service or feature, and avoid loading remote content from suspicious messages. Deleting a message afterward does not erase a request that already reached the sender’s tracking service.

Sources & References

Editorial Review

Reviewed by Claire Bennett, Managing Editor

Last reviewed: August 2026

Quick Answer Guide publishes practical, research-based answers to common questions about money, technology, health, travel, home improvement, and everyday life. Content is reviewed using official government resources, educational institutions, industry publications, and other authoritative sources when appropriate. Articles are updated periodically to improve accuracy and usefulness.

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